As ethnography developed, anthropologists became increasingly interested in the less tangible aspects of culture, such as values, the worldview, and what Clifford Geertz called the “ethics” of culture. In his fieldwork, Geertz used elements of a phenomenological approach that traced not only people`s actions, but also the cultural elements themselves. For example, if within a group of people the wink was a gesture of communication, he first tried to determine what kind of things a wink could mean (it could mean several things). Next, he tried to determine in which contexts the winks were used and whether, when moving around a region, the winks remained meaningful in the same way. In this way, the cultural boundaries of communication could be explored, as opposed to linguistic boundaries or ideas about residency. Geertz, while still following a traditional ethnographic structure, came out of this division to speak of “nets” rather than “contours”[33] of culture. Cultural anthropology and social anthropology developed around ethnographic research and its canonical texts, which are mostly ethnographic: for example Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski, Ethnological Excursion to Johore (1875) by Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay, Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) by Margaret Mead, The Nuer (1940) by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Naven (1936, 1958) by Gregory Bateson, or “The Lele of the Kasai” (1963) by Mary Douglas. Today, cultural and social anthropologists attach great importance to ethnographic research. Typical ethnography is a written document about a particular people and is almost always based, at least in part, on Emic views of where culture begins and ends. The use of language or community boundaries to link ethnography is common. [26] Ethnographies are sometimes referred to as “case studies.” [27] Ethnographers study and interpret culture, its universalities and variations through an ethnographic study based on fieldwork.

An ethnography is a specific type of written observational science that provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community. Fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with locals, and learning more about their way of life. Ruth Fulton Benedict uses examples of Enthrotyhy in her serious fieldwork, which began in 1922 with Serrano, the Zuni in 1924, the Cochiti in 1925 and the Pina in 1926. All the people she wanted to study for her anthropological data. Benedict XVI`s experiences with the southwest of Zuni Pueblo should be seen as the basis of their formative research in the field. Experience gave him the idea to produce his theory of “culture is the capitalized personality” (Model, 1988). Through the study of culture between the different Pueblo and Plain Indians, she discovered cultural isomorphism, which would be considered her unique and personalized approach to the study of anthropology using ethnographic techniques. This type of ethnography is not as typical as ethnography recorded in pen and pencil. Digital ethnography offers many more opportunities to examine different cultures and societies. Traditional ethnography can use videos or images, but digital ethnography goes deeper into the depth.

For example, digital ethnographers would use social media platforms such as Twitter or blogs to study people`s interactions and behaviors. Modern developments in computing power and AI have enabled greater efficiency in ethnographic data collection through multimedia and computer analysis using machine learning to confirm multiple data sources together to produce refined output for different purposes. [3] A modern example of this in-app technology is the use of audio captured in smart devices that are transcribed to deliver targeted ads (often combined with other metadata or product development data for designers). 4] Other notable ethnographies include Paul Willis` Learning to Labour on working-class youth; the work of Elijah Anderson, Mitchell Duneier and Loïc Wacquant on black America and Lai Olurode`s ideas on the madrasas of Africa. But even though many subfields and theoretical perspectives within sociology use ethnographic methods, ethnography is not the sine qua non of the discipline, as is the case in cultural anthropology. Fine does not necessarily blame ethnographic researchers, but tries to show that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and norms that are inherently based on partial truths and self-deception. Fine also recognizes that many of these partial truths and self-deceptions are inevitable. He argues that “illusions” are essential to maintaining a professional reputation and avoiding potentially more corrosive consequences.

He says, “Ethnographers can`t help but lie, but by lying, we reveal truths that escape those who are not so bold.” [50] Based on these claims, Fine established three conceptual groups in which ethnographic ethical dilemmas can be located: “Classical Virtues,” “Technical Skills,” and “Ethnographic Self.” Sociology is another field in which ethnographies are well represented. In particular, urban sociology, Atlanta University (now Clark-Atlanta University) and the Chicago School are associated with ethnographic research, some well-known examples being The Philadelphia Negro (1899) by W. E. B. Du Bois, Street Corner Society by William Foote Whyte and Black Metropolis by St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Jr. The main influences on this development were the anthropologist Lloyd Warner, the Chicago School of Sociology, and Robert Park`s experience as a journalist.

Symbolic interactionism evolved from the same tradition and led to sociological ethnographies such as Gary Alan Fine`s Shared Fantasy, which documents the early history of fantasy role-playing games.